Introduction
Breast tumor is one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, accounting for 24.2 % of all tumors, and it remains a primary cause of death in females [1]. Various factors participate in the malignancy of breast tumor, with metastasis being the primary cause, accounting for 90 % of related deaths [2]. Along with metastasis, drug resistance and recurrence significantly affect patient prognosis [3], [4]. Moreover, there is dysregulation of lncRNAs such as MEG3 in breast tumor [5]. Advancements in diagnostic tools and the development of molecular-targeted drugs have significantly improved patient prognosis [6]. Furthermore, the breast cancer patients are mainly diagnosed at late stages and new methods for diagnosis have been developed [7]. Among the different subtypes of breast tumor, TNBC and HER2-positive breast cancer demonstrate malignant behaviour [8]. The incidence rate of breast tumor differs across European countries due to differences in screening programs and risk factors [9], [10]. Early breast cancer detection and advancements in therapy have led to improved mortality rates in Northern and Western European countries compared to those in Central and Eastern Europe [9], [11]. Overall, various key methods are employed for the management of breast tumor, namely radiotherapy [12], chemotherapy [13], immunotherapy [14], and targeted therapy [15]. However, these treatment approaches have encountered several challenges in suppressing breast tumors. The aggressive and heterogeneous tumor microenvironment contributes to therapy resistance, leading breast cancer cells to develop resistance to both radiotherapy [16] and chemotherapy [17]. Moreover, immune evasion is a significant challenge in breast tumor suppression [18]. The application of new therapies offers valuable opportunities to enhance breast cancer suppression. Furthermore, there has been an enhancement in the application of nanoparticles in the treatment of cancer [19], [20], [21], [22]. In addition, cancer immunotherapy with nanocomposites [23] and radiation-chemotherapy [24] have been introduced in carcinogenesis suppression. Peptides have been utilized as a multifunctional approach for cancer treatment [25], [26], [27] and breast cancer is among them. Peptides offer several advantages over other therapeutics, including small molecules and monoclonal antibodies, in terms of therapeutic potential and reduced side effects. Their unique properties, including biocompatibility, biosafety, ease of synthesis, and capacity to interact with various molecular targets, making them promising candidates for breast cancer treatment. Breast cancer is one of the most common and prevalent tumors worldwide, and due to its resistance to conventional therapies, the introduction of peptides presents a promising avenue for its suppression.
Peptides have demonstrated the ability to affect key factors in breast tumor, HER2, VEGF, and PI3K/Akt, which are crucial for tumor progression and malignancy. Furthermore, peptides can overcome drug resistance by targeting resistance-associated proteins or through combination therapies. The utilization of peptides in breast tumor therapy is particularly significant for the development of advanced delivery systems, where peptides can serve as ligands to enhance the specificity and delivery of chemotherapy drugs and genetic tools. Peptide vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors also offer new opportunities in breast tumor immunotherapy by employing the immune system to suppress tumors. Advances in peptide engineering, including cyclization, stapling, and the incorporation of non-natural amino acids, have further enhanced their stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic potential. This review highlights the latest advancements in the utilization of peptides for breast tumor management, emphasizing function in elevating therapeutic results and addressing challenges associated with traditional therapies.
Section snippets
Peptides: basics and principles
Advances in molecular biology have facilitated the discovery of numerous small peptides across various species [28], [29]. These peptides exhibit a range of biological activities, including the ability to eliminate bacteria, fungi, and tumor cells, as well as modulate the immune reactions. The growing body of structural and functional data has led to the identification of low molecular weight cationic peptides with anti-tumor properties, now referred to as anti-cancer peptides [30]. Cationic
Peptides: mechanisms of action in cancer
Therapeutic peptides show anticancer effectiveness through mechanisms such as membrane disruption, triggering apoptosis, inhibiting angiogenesis, modulating immune responses, and targeting specific intracellular pathways. These peptides can create holes in membranes, leading to cell death or facilitating peptide uptake. Additionally, peptides can disrupt mitochondrial membranes, triggering apoptosis through the release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspases. Some peptides inhibit VEGF
Therapeutic peptides in breast cancer
Controlling metastasis is crucial for improving breast cancer outcomes. Peptides are emerging as innovative therapeutic agents targeting various aspects of this complex process. One study identified the cell adhesion protein F11R/JAM-A in TNBC, where its upregulation caused poor patient prognosis. A peptide antagonist (P4D) was developed to disrupt endothelial cell function, resulting in decreased TNBC growth and viability in vitro, and a significant decrease in metastasis [56]. Focusing on
Clinical studies
The average age of patients was 47.5 years. The safety profile was similar to that of paclitaxel, with myelosuppression recognized as the main risk. Patients underwent an average of 2.8 previous CNS-targeted therapies, and 94 % had a history of taxane treatment. Clinical benefit, defined as stable disease or better, was observed in 77 % of evaluable patients for intracranial disease and 86 % for extracranial disease. The intracranial objective response rate (iORR) was found to be 15 % according
Challenges and future directions
Peptides have surfaced as potential therapeutic agents for breast cancer treatment due to their high specificity, minimal toxicity, and ability to target essential biochemical pathways involved in tumor development. However, various challenges hinder their wide clinical application. A major issue is the susceptibility of peptides to enzymatic degradation, which limits their stability and lifespan within the organism. This issue is worsened by their rapid clearance from the bloodstream, reducing
Conclusion and perspectives
Peptides have emerged as ideal candidates for cancer therapy, particularly for treating breast tumors. Their advantages include high specificity, low toxicity, and the ability to target specific molecular pathways, making them highly effective for targeted therapy. Peptides are utilized in various therapeutic modalities, such as vaccine development, immunotherapy, and phototherapy.
One of the key benefits of peptides is their ability to target tumor cells, minimizing damage to normal cells
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Taheriazam afshin: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Rahimzadeh Payman: Supervision, Resources, Investigation. mahmoodieh behnaz: Visualization, Supervision. daneshi salman: Resources, Investigation. nabavi Noushin: Writing – review & editing. Tahmasebi Safa: Writing – review & editing, Investigation. farahani Najma: Writing – original draft. hashemi farid: Writing – original draft. Alaei Elmira: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. hashemi Mehrdad: Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.